PED
PED = (% Δ Q_d) / (% Δ P) Cambridge International A Level 9708
🌐 Cambridge International A Level Economics Formula Sheet 2026
Elasticities, market structures, national income, balance of payments and development metrics compiled for Cambridge A Level exam success.
Advanced Micro Macroeconomics International Trade Development
Our formula sheets are free to download — save this one as PDF for offline revision.
Aligned with the latest 2026 syllabus and board specifications. This sheet is prepared to match your exam board’s official specifications for the 2026 exam series.
Raise Your Economics Calculations to A* Level
Cambridge examiners expect clear numerical evidence to support micro and macro analysis. Use this formula sheet to keep advanced elasticity, cost/revenue, income and trade calculations on standby while you write high-level essays.
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Elasticities with interpretation tips
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National income and multiplier applications
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Trade, exchange rate and balance indicators
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Development indexes and inequality metrics
Elasticity & consumer/producer surplus
Price and income responses; welfare triangles.
PES
PES = (% Δ Q_s) / (% Δ P) YED
YED = (% Δ Q_d) / (% Δ income) XED
XED = (% Δ Q_A) / (% Δ P_B) Consumer surplus (linear approx.)
Area under demand above price.
CS = ½ × Q × (P_max − P) Producer surplus
Area above supply below price.
PS area from supply curve geometry Topic Focus
Diagrams
- Shifts in demand/supply vs movements along curves.
- Incidence of tax depends on relative elasticities.
Macro aggregates & growth
National income accounting and growth.
GDP (expenditure)
Y = C + I + G + (X − M) Real vs nominal
Real GDP = Nominal GDP / (GDP deflator / 100) Multiplier (simple)
MPC marginal propensity to consume.
k = 1 / (1 − MPC) Harrod–Domar idea
Growth and savings/capital–output ratio.
g ≈ s / v (conceptual) Topic Focus
Policy
- Fiscal vs monetary levers; lags and crowding out in evaluation.
- Compare actual vs potential output (output gap).
Inflation, unemployment & Phillips curve
Indicators and short-run trade-offs.
Inflation rate
π_t ≈ (CPI_t − CPI_{t−1}) / CPI_{t−1} × 100% Unemployment rate
U% = (unemployed / labour force) × 100% Fisher (approx.)
real interest ≈ nominal − expected inflation Topic Focus
Expectations
- Adaptive vs rational expectations change policy effectiveness.
- NAIRU / natural rate in long-run Phillips interpretation.
International & exchange rates
Trade and balance of payments.
Balance of payments
CA + KA + FA = 0 (by accounting identity) Real exchange rate
RER = (e × P_foreign) / P_home Terms of trade
ToT = (price index exports / price index imports) × 100 Topic Focus
Open economy
- Marshall–Lerner: sum of import/export elasticities > 1 for depreciation to improve trade balance (ceteris paribus).
- J-curve: short vs long run after exchange rate shock.
Market structures (reference)
Profit maximisation rule.
Profit max
Produce where MR = MC Markup (simple)
Monopoly power.
P − MC / P = −1 / PED (related) Topic Focus
Evaluation
- Compare productive/allocative/dynamic efficiency across perfect competition, monopoly, oligopoly.
- Game theory: dominant strategy vs Nash equilibrium.
How to Use This Formula Sheet
Boost your Cambridge exam confidence with these proven study strategies from our tutoring experts.
🧠
Explain What the Number Means
Pair every calculation with a sentence linking back to efficiency, welfare or macro objectives to earn analysis marks.
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Draw Diagrams beside Formulas
Use elasticity and multiplier formulas alongside diagrams to show both numerical and graphical reasoning.
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State Assumptions Clearly
Mention ceteris paribus conditions, time lags and data limitations when using ratios or multipliers.
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Compare Across Economies
Quote relative metrics (e.g., TOT, Gini) to build stronger evaluation in globalisation or development essays.
Formula sheet FAQ
Quick answers about this free PDF, how to use it for exam revision, and how it relates to your official syllabus.
Is the Cambridge International A Level Economics Formula Sheet 2026 free to download as a PDF?
Yes. This Tutopiya formula sheet is free to use and you can download it as a PDF from this page for offline revision. There is no payment or account required for the PDF download.
What Economics topics and equations does this formula sheet cover?
This page groups key Economics formulas in one place for revision. Comprehensive Cambridge International A Level Economics (9708) formula sheet for 2026, covering micro theory, macro aggregates, balance of payments and development indicators. Always cross-check with your official syllabus and past papers for your exam session.
Can I use this instead of the official exam formula booklet in the exam?
No. In the exam you must follow only what your exam board allows in the hall—usually the official formula booklet or data sheet where provided. This page is a revision and teaching aid, not a replacement for board-issued materials.
Who is this formula sheet for (Upper Secondary)?
It is written for students preparing for assessments at Upper Secondary in Economics, including classroom revision, homework support, and independent study. Teachers and tutors can also share it as a quick reference.
How should I revise with this formula sheet?
Work through past paper questions, quote the correct formula before substituting values, and check units and notation every time. Pair this sheet with timed practice and mark schemes so you see how examiners expect working to be set out.
Where can I get more help with Economics revision?
Explore Tutopiya’s study tools, past paper finder, and revision checklists linked from our tools hub, or book a trial lesson with a subject specialist for personalised support alongside this formula reference.
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Aligned with the Cambridge International AS & A Level Economics (9708) syllabus for 2026 examinations.
Always comment on data limitations, time period and structural factors when interpreting calculated values.