Why is "Treating identity (class, gender, ethnicity, age) as natural or biologically fixed." a common mistake in Social Identity and Change?

Why it happens: These categories feel obvious and 'real', so students forget the sociological point that they are socially constructed. How to avoid it: Always state that identity is SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED and back it with variation: gender roles differ between cultures, childhood and old age have different meanings in different societies. This shows AO1 understanding immediately. Source: 9699 Examiner Reports — Paper 1 (lack of conceptual understanding of identity)

Why is "Claiming class identity 'has disappeared' rather than 'has changed'." a common mistake in Social Identity and Change?

Why it happens: Students remember Pakulski & Waters' 'death of class' and overstate it as established fact. How to avoid it: Balance it: Pakulski & Waters argue class is declining, but Skeggs shows class identity is still deeply felt. The safe position is that class identity has CHANGED FORM, not vanished — and saying so earns AO3 credit. Source: 9699 Paper 1 mark scheme (rewarding balanced treatment of change)

Why is "Accepting the postmodernist 'identity is freely chosen' view uncritically." a common mistake in Social Identity and Change?

Why it happens: The 'pick and mix' / 'supermarket of style' idea is memorable and exciting, so students treat it as the whole answer. How to avoid it: Always add the structural reply: choice is real but UNEQUAL — money, racism and patriarchy still constrain it. The 'supermarket of style' assumes you can afford to shop. A one-sided pro-choice answer caps the mark. Source: 9699 Examiner Reports — Section B (one-sided answers lacking evaluation)

Why is "Confusing globalisation as 'making everyone the same' with 'more individual choice'." a common mistake in Social Identity and Change?

Why it happens: Both ideas come up under 'change', so students blur homogenisation and postmodern choice. How to avoid it: Keep them distinct: homogenisation/Americanisation suggests LESS choice (one global culture); postmodernism suggests MORE choice (pick and mix); glocalisation blends global and local. Using all three correctly raises the level. Source: 9699 Examiner Reports — Paper 1 (confusion of globalisation concepts)

Why is "Discussing identity in general terms with no named theorists." a common mistake in Social Identity and Change?

Why it happens: Identity feels like everyday knowledge, so students rely on common sense rather than sociology. How to avoid it: Anchor every point to a named theorist: Connell (masculinity), Sharpe (girls' aspirations), Stuart Hall (hybrid identities), Giddens/Bauman/Polhemus (choice), Skeggs (class). This is the difference between AO1 credit and a generic answer. Source: 9699 Examiner Reports — 'use of named studies and theory raises the level'

Why is "Evaluating the view in Q3(a) when you are only asked to EXPLAIN it." a common mistake in Social Identity and Change?

Why it happens: Students are trained to evaluate everything and cannot resist arguing both sides. How to avoid it: Read the command word. Q3(a) = explain the view (make the case FOR it, e.g. for choice); Q3(b) = argue AGAINST it (bring in structure). Save all criticism for 3(b). Doing the wrong skill caps the mark. Source: 9699 Paper 1 mark scheme (Q3 part split AO1+AO2 vs AO2+AO3)

Cambridge International A Levels Sociology (9699)

Social Identity and Change

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Detailed Study Notes

Detailed notes on Socialisation and the creation of social identity for Cambridge International A Levels Sociology, covering key concepts, explanations, examples, and exam-focused revision points.

Social Identity and Change — Cambridge AS & A Level Sociology 9699 (Paper 1)

Who are you, and who decides? This subtopic asks how socialisation builds our sense of identity out of four big building blocks — social class, gender, ethnicity and age — and then asks whether those identities are breaking down. Globalisation, consumer choice and cultural mixing have led some sociologists to argue that identity is now fluid, chosen and hybrid, while others insist class, racism and patriarchy still constrain who we can be. Master this debate and you can write a top-band answer on identity AND link it to the perspectives you met in 1.1.

At a glance

Social identity = our sense of who we are, built through socialisation and derived from the groups we belong to. It is socially constructed, not natural.
Learn the FOUR bases of identity cold — CLASS, GENDER, ETHNICITY and AGE. Each gives us a sense of belonging and shapes how others treat us.
Class identity: traditional working-class solidarity vs middle-class identity; debates over whether class is 'dying' (embourgeoisement; Pakulski & Waters) or still central (Skeggs on respectability).
Gender identity: femininity and masculinity are socially constructed; hegemonic masculinity (Connell); the 'crisis of masculinity'; Sue Sharpe shows girls' priorities shifting from marriage to careers.
Ethnic identity: shaped by culture, religion and language; Stuart Hall's 'new ethnicities' and hybrid identities (e.g. 'Brasian'); diaspora and transnational links.
Age identity: childhood, youth and old age are SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS that vary across cultures and history; youth subcultures; changing experiences of old age.
The big debate: postmodernists (Giddens, Bauman, Polhemus) say identity is now fluid, chosen and hybrid through consumption and globalisation; modernists/structuralists reply that class, gender and ethnicity STILL strongly constrain identity.

What you’ll learn

Mapped to the Cambridge International A Level 9699 syllabus (2024-2026).

1.3 — Social class, gender, ethnicity and age as elements in the construction of social identity.
1.3 — How social class, gender, ethnicity and age identities may be changing due to globalisation, increased choice and the creation of new/hybrid identities.

What is social identity? The four building blocks

Identity is not natural — it is built through socialisation out of the groups we belong to. Learn the four bases first.

Social identity is our sense of who we are. It is built up through socialisation and comes largely from the groups we belong to — our class, our sex, our ethnic group, our age group, our nation, our religion. It has two sides:

Personal identity — what makes us feel unique as an individual (our name, biography, personality).
Social identity — the parts of 'who we are' that we share with others because we belong to the same social groups.

Crucially, identity is socially constructed (recall Berger and Luckmann from 1.1): it is created and maintained through interaction and shared meaning, not fixed by biology. The same person can be seen very differently in different societies and at different points in history.

The 9699 syllabus picks out four key bases of identity you must be able to discuss:

Basis of identity	What it is built from	Why it matters
Social class	Occupation, income, wealth, culture and lifestyle	Shapes life chances, tastes, speech and a sense of 'us' vs 'them'
Gender	Socially constructed ideas of femininity and masculinity	Shapes expected roles, behaviour and self-image
Ethnicity	Shared culture, traditions, religion, language and ancestry	Provides belonging, pride and a sense of difference
Age	Childhood, youth, adulthood, old age (all social constructs)	Shapes status, expectations and how others treat us

These four overlap. A person is never just working class — they are also a particular gender, ethnicity and age at the same time. Identity is therefore multiple and can pull in different directions.

The big question for this subtopic, set up here and answered in the rest of the note, is whether these four bases still firmly fix our identity, or whether modern life has made identity something we increasingly choose.

Social identity = our sense of who we are, derived from the groups we belong to and built through socialisation.
Identity is socially constructed (Berger & Luckmann), not biological — it varies by society and over time.
Four bases in the syllabus: social class, gender, ethnicity, age.
Identity is multiple — the four bases overlap and can pull in different directions.

Class and gender identity

Two bases where 'is identity declining or changing?' is the live exam debate. Learn the named theorists for each.

Class identity

Social class shapes far more than income — it shapes tastes, speech, leisure, values and a sense of belonging.

Traditional working-class identity was built on manual work, the local community and solidarity — a strong 'us' (workers) versus 'them' (bosses) feeling. Marxists link this to class consciousness: an awareness of shared class interests.
Middle-class identity is associated with non-manual/professional work, qualifications, deferred gratification and individual achievement.

A key debate is whether class identity is declining:

Embourgeoisement suggested that better-paid manual workers were becoming middle class in their outlook and lifestyle.
Pakulski and Waters controversially argued for the "death of class" — that class no longer shapes identity as it once did, because consumption and lifestyle matter more.
Against this, Skeggs showed in her research that class is still deeply felt: working-class women worked hard at 'respectability' precisely because class judgements still sting. Many sociologists argue class identity has changed form rather than disappeared.

Gender identity

Femininity and masculinity are socially constructed sets of expectations, not natural products of being male or female.

Connell identified hegemonic masculinity — the dominant, culturally idealised form of manhood (toughness, breadwinning, heterosexuality) against which men are measured.
The decline of traditional male manual jobs has led some to talk of a "crisis of masculinity" — men unsure of their role as old sources of male identity disappear.
Female identities have changed markedly. Sue Sharpe's famous research compared girls in the 1970s and the 1990s and found a clear shift: from prioritising 'love, marriage, husbands and children' to prioritising 'careers, qualifications and being able to support themselves'. This shows gender identity is not fixed — it responds to social change.

Identity basis	Traditional form	Evidence of change	Key theorist
Class	Manual work, solidarity, class consciousness	'Death of class' claims; consumption over class	Pakulski & Waters; Skeggs
Gender	Fixed femininity/masculinity; male breadwinner	Crisis of masculinity; girls prioritise careers	Connell; Sue Sharpe

Traditional working-class identity = manual work, community, solidarity, class consciousness (Marxist).
Is class declining? Embourgeoisement and Pakulski & Waters ('death of class') say yes; Skeggs (respectability) says class is still deeply felt.
Gender identity is socially constructed: Connell's hegemonic masculinity; the 'crisis of masculinity'.
Sue Sharpe: girls' priorities shifted from marriage/children (1970s) to careers/independence (1990s) — identity responds to change.

Ethnic and age identity

Two bases that powerfully show identity can be hybrid (ethnicity) and socially constructed (age).

Ethnic identity

Ethnicity is a sense of shared identity based on common culture, traditions, religion, language and ancestry. Ethnic identity gives belonging and pride, and is reinforced through socialisation in the family and community.

Cultural markers such as religion, food, dress and language help sustain ethnic identity even far from a group's place of origin.
A diaspora is a group dispersed from its homeland that keeps a shared identity through transnational links (family, media, religion).
Stuart Hall argued that ethnic identities are not fixed. His idea of "new ethnicities" stresses that identity is actively created, especially among young people, who blend cultures to form hybrid identities — for example a 'British Asian' or 'Brasian' identity that mixes British and South Asian influences. Ethnic identity is therefore dynamic and increasingly mixed, not a single inherited tradition.

Age identity

Age may look biological, but the meaning attached to each stage of life is a social construct that varies across cultures and history:

Childhood is socially constructed — what childhood means, and how children are treated, differs between societies and over time (compare a sheltered modern Western childhood with societies where children work from a young age).
Youth is associated with transition, exploration and freedom. Youth subcultures (distinctive styles, music and values) are an important way young people express identity and mark themselves off from adults.
Old age is also socially constructed: in some societies elders have high status and respect, while in others old age is linked to dependency and decline. These experiences are changing as people live longer and stay active for longer.

Identity basis	Key idea	Evidence it is constructed/changing
Ethnicity	Built from culture, religion, language; can be hybrid	Stuart Hall's 'new ethnicities'; 'Brasian'; diaspora
Age	Childhood/youth/old age are social constructs	Cross-cultural and historical variation; youth subcultures

Ethnic identity = shared culture, traditions, religion, language, ancestry; sustained through socialisation and diaspora links.
Stuart Hall: 'new ethnicities' and HYBRID identities (e.g. 'Brasian') — ethnic identity is actively created, not just inherited.
Age identities (childhood, youth, old age) are SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS that vary across cultures and history.
Youth subcultures are a key way young people build and express identity against the adult world.

How identities are changing: globalisation, choice and hybridity

The second half of the syllabus point. Three forces are said to be loosening the old, fixed identities.

The syllabus asks specifically how class, gender, ethnicity and age identities may be changing. Three linked forces are central, and the postmodernist theorists are the names that lift your answer.

1. Globalisation

Globalisation — the growing interconnection of the world through trade, travel, migration and especially media — gives people access to many cultures at once.

Some see cultural homogenisation ('Americanisation'): a single global consumer culture spreading and weakening distinct local identities.
Others argue for glocalisation: global products and ideas are adapted to fit local cultures, so identity becomes a mix of global and local rather than a simple takeover.
Either way, people now build identity from a far wider menu of cultural resources than their grandparents did.

2. Increased choice (postmodernism)

Postmodernists argue that in modern (or 'late modern') society, identity is no longer simply handed to us by class, gender or ethnicity — it is increasingly fluid, chosen and constructed.

Giddens describes the reflexive self: in late modernity we constantly reflect on and remake who we are; identity becomes an ongoing personal project.
Bauman uses the idea of liquid identity — identities are now changeable and temporary rather than solid and lifelong.
Identity is increasingly expressed through consumption and lifestyle: what we buy, wear and watch signals who we are. Polhemus captured this with the phrase "supermarket of style" — we 'pick and mix' identities from an array of options, almost like shopping.

3. New / hybrid identities

Putting globalisation and choice together produces hybrid identities — identities created by mixing cultures.

Stuart Hall's work on hybrid identities (the 'Brasian' example) shows young people blending the cultures around them into something new.
Transnational identities are common: people feel they belong to more than one nation or culture at once, kept connected by media and travel.

Force	Core claim	Key theorist/concept
Globalisation	Access to global culture reshapes identity	Homogenisation vs glocalisation
Increased choice	Identity is fluid, chosen, expressed through consumption	Giddens (reflexive self); Bauman (liquid identity); Polhemus ('supermarket of style')
Hybridity	Cultures mix to create new identities	Stuart Hall (hybrid/'Brasian' identities)

Globalisation gives access to many cultures: homogenisation/Americanisation vs glocalisation.
Postmodernists: identity is now fluid and CHOSEN — Giddens (reflexive self), Bauman (liquid identity).
Identity increasingly built through consumption and lifestyle: Polhemus's 'supermarket of style' / 'pick and mix'.
Hybrid and transnational identities (Stuart Hall, 'Brasian') mix cultures into something new.

Evaluating the change: structure versus choice

Where the AO3 marks live. The postmodernist case is exciting but overstated — show why structure still matters.

The postmodernist 'identity is now chosen' argument is the headline-grabbing position, but the top band rewards a two-sided judgement. Modernists and structuralists offer powerful criticisms.

The case that identity is increasingly chosen (postmodernist):

Old class, gender and ethnic identities clearly have loosened — Sharpe's girls, hybrid 'Brasian' identities and the rise of lifestyle/consumer identity all show this.
Globalisation genuinely widens the cultural menu, and young people in particular do 'pick and mix'.

The case that identity is still shaped (and constrained) by structure:

Class still matters. Skeggs shows class identity is still deeply felt, and your income limits the 'lifestyle' you can actually 'choose' — the 'supermarket of style' is only open to those who can afford it. Marxists argue class position still powerfully shapes life chances and identity.
Gender still matters. Despite Sharpe's findings, patriarchy persists; women still face unequal expectations, and Connell's hegemonic masculinity still pressures men. Gender identity is not freely chosen for most people.
Ethnicity still matters. Racism and discrimination mean ethnic identity is often imposed by how others treat you, not freely selected. You cannot simply 'opt out' of an ethnic identity others assign to you.
Postmodernists overstate free choice. Choice is real but unequal — it is shaped by money, racism and patriarchy. Identity is therefore best seen as a negotiation between the resources society gives us (structure) and what we make of them (agency).

The balanced (top-band) view: identity has genuinely become more fluid, hybrid and consumption-based, especially for the young and the affluent — so the postmodernists are partly right. BUT class, gender and ethnicity continue to shape and constrain identity for most people most of the time, so the modernists are also right. The strongest conclusion is that identity is both structured and chosen — increasingly negotiated, not simply free.

Postmodernist case: Sharpe, hybrid identities and consumer/lifestyle identity show old identities have loosened.
Structuralist reply: class (Skeggs), patriarchy (gender) and racism (ethnicity) still constrain identity.
The 'supermarket of style' assumes money — choice is real but UNEQUAL.
Top-band conclusion: identity is BOTH structured AND chosen — increasingly negotiated, not simply free.

Quick recap

Social identity is our sense of who we are, derived from group memberships and built through socialisation; it is socially constructed, not natural.
The four bases of identity are social class, gender, ethnicity and age — overlapping and multiple.
Class identity (solidarity, class consciousness) may be declining (Pakulski & Waters) or just changing form (Skeggs); gender identity is constructed (Connell) and shifting (Sharpe).
Ethnic identity is built from culture, religion and language and can be hybrid (Stuart Hall, 'Brasian'); age identities (childhood, youth, old age) are social constructs.
Identities are changing through globalisation, increased choice (Giddens, Bauman, Polhemus) and new/hybrid identities.
Evaluation: postmodernists say identity is now freely chosen, but class, patriarchy and racism mean choice is real yet unequal — identity is both structured and chosen.

Memorise this

Verbatim phrases and definitions Cambridge mark schemes credit.

Social identity = sense of who we are, derived from group memberships; socially constructed.
Four bases: social class, gender, ethnicity, age.
Pakulski & Waters — the 'death of class'; embourgeoisement.
Skeggs — class and 'respectability' (class still deeply felt).
Connell — hegemonic masculinity; the 'crisis of masculinity'.
Sue Sharpe — girls' priorities shifted from marriage/children to careers/independence.
Stuart Hall — 'new ethnicities' and hybrid identities ('Brasian'); diaspora.
Childhood, youth and old age as social constructs; youth subcultures.
Globalisation — homogenisation/Americanisation vs glocalisation.
Giddens — the reflexive self; Bauman — liquid identity.
Polhemus — 'supermarket of style' / 'pick and mix' identity through consumption.
Evaluation: choice is real but UNEQUAL — constrained by class, patriarchy, racism.

How it’s examined

This subtopic sits in Paper 1 (Socialisation, identity and methods of research), AS Level, 1 hour 30 minutes, 60 marks. Section A is all-compulsory: Q1 is a short-answer question (4 marks, AO1 — often 'Describe two…' or define a concept such as social identity or hybrid identity); Q2(a) asks you to 'Explain two…' (6 marks, AO1+AO2 — e.g. two ways gender identity has changed); Q2(b) asks you to evaluate a research method's strengths and/or limitations (8 marks, AO1+AO3 — Paper 1 integrates methods, so be ready to apply a method to studying identity); Q3(a) asks you to explain the view in a quotation (8 marks, AO1+AO2); Q3(b) asks you to use sociological material to argue AGAINST the view (8 marks, AO2+AO3). Section B is one 26-mark essay (AO1+AO2+AO3) chosen from two. For identity, the highest-scoring skill is setting class, gender, ethnicity and age against the structure-versus-choice debate, naming theorists (Connell, Sharpe, Stuart Hall, Giddens, Bauman, Polhemus, Skeggs), and reaching a committed conclusion about whether identity is now freely chosen.

Sources: Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology 9699 syllabus (for examination in 2024, 2025 and 2026); 9699 Paper 1 specimen materials and mark schemes (Cambridge International); 9699 Examiner Reports — Paper 1 (Socialisation, identity and methods of research). Last reviewed 2026-05-24.

Take this whole topic with you

Step-by-step worked examples — Social Identity and Change

Step-by-step solutions to past-paper-style questions on social identity and change, written exactly the way a tutor would explain them at the board.

1Getting started: the 4-mark short answer (Q1)
Getting started• Paper 1, Q1, short answer, technique
Question
Question: 'Describe two bases of social identity.' (4 marks) How do you score full marks fast?
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Decode the marks. 4 marks = 2 marks per item: 1 for identifying a correct basis, 1 for developing/describing it. So you need TWO bases of identity, each with a sentence of development. No introduction, no conclusion — go straight in.
2. Step 2
  Identify two clearly different bases from the syllabus list: social class, gender, ethnicity, age. Choosing two distinct ones avoids overlap and makes development easy.
3. Step 3
  Develop each one with WHAT it is built from. 'Ethnic identity is based on a shared culture, religion and language, giving a group a sense of belonging.' That sentence earns both marks.
4. Step 4
  Use precise vocabulary. Words like 'socially constructed', 'class consciousness', 'hybrid identity' and 'social construct' signal AO1 knowledge and lift you to the top of the band.
5. Step 5
  Keep it tight. Two or three sentences total. Spending five minutes here is a waste — bank the marks and move on to the higher-tariff questions.
Answer
Two bases, each named + one developing sentence on what it is built from. e.g. (1) Social class — based on occupation, income and lifestyle, giving a sense of 'us' vs 'them'; (2) Age — childhood, youth and old age are social constructs that shape status and expectations.
Examiner tip
Q1 tests AO1 (knowledge) only. The mark scheme awards 1 mark for a correct point and 1 for development, twice. Candidates lose marks by listing two bases with no development, or by giving two versions of the same basis in disguise.
2Getting started: 'Explain two…' (Q2a, 6 marks)
Getting started• Paper 1, Q2(a), Explain, technique
Question
Question: 'Explain two ways in which gender identity has changed in modern societies.' (6 marks) Plan a top-band answer.
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Read the command word: 'Explain'. This needs ways made evident — point + development + example. 6 marks = 3 marks per way (point, development, supporting evidence).
2. Step 2
  Choose two strong, separate ways. Way 1: female identities have shifted towards careers and independence. Way 2: a 'crisis of masculinity' as traditional male roles decline. Two distinct lines are safer than two versions of the same point.
3. Step 3
  Build each way as a chain. Point → why it shows change → named evidence. e.g. 'Female identity has changed → girls now prioritise careers over marriage → Sue Sharpe found priorities shifted between the 1970s and 1990s.'
4. Step 4
  Use a named theorist for AO2 application. Sharpe for changing female identity; Connell's hegemonic masculinity and the loss of traditional manual jobs for the 'crisis of masculinity'.
5. Step 5
  Write two short, focused paragraphs. Do not drift into the whole identity essay — answer only what is asked about gender.
Answer
Two developed ways, each as point→development→example: (1) female identity shifted to careers/independence (Sue Sharpe, 1970s vs 1990s); (2) a 'crisis of masculinity' as traditional male manual roles decline (Connell, hegemonic masculinity).
Examiner tip
Q2(a) tests AO1 + AO2. Full marks need TWO ways, each explained and supported with a named theorist/study. A common cap: identifying two changes but not explaining HOW or WHY they count as changes in gender identity.
3Building confidence: evaluate a research method (Q2b, 8 marks)
Building confidence• Paper 1, Q2(b), methods, evaluate, technique
Question
Question: 'Evaluate the strengths and limitations of using unstructured interviews to study young people's sense of identity.' (8 marks) How do you structure it?
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Remember Paper 1 integrates methods. Even on an identity question you must know methods. 'Evaluate' = give strengths AND limitations, then a brief overall comment. Tie everything to studying IDENTITY.
2. Step 2
  Define the method briefly. Unstructured interviews = open, conversation-style interviews with no fixed questions, letting the interviewer follow up and probe.
3. Step 3
  Give 2 developed strengths, APPLIED to the topic. High validity — young people can explain identity in their own words, including hybrid or fluid identities a questionnaire would miss; flexibility lets you probe sensitive areas (ethnicity, class); captures meanings interactionists value (verstehen).
4. Step 4
  Give 2 developed limitations, APPLIED. Time-consuming → small, unrepresentative samples → hard to generalise about youth identity (positivist criticism); interviewer effect / social desirability (young people may say what sounds good about their identity); low reliability because hard to replicate; risk of interviewer bias in interpreting answers.
5. Step 5
  Reach a short evaluative comment. e.g. 'Strong on validity and depth, ideal for fluid/hybrid identity, but weak on reliability and representativeness — best combined with other methods (triangulation).' That overall judgement secures the top band.
Answer
Define unstructured interviews → 2 applied strengths (validity, depth, flexibility to probe identity, verstehen) → 2 applied limitations (small/unrepresentative samples, interviewer effect/social desirability, low reliability) → overall comment (high validity for studying fluid identity, low reliability → triangulate).
Examiner tip
Q2(b) tests AO1 + AO3. The top band needs strengths AND limitations that are APPLIED to studying identity, not generic textbook lists, plus an overall evaluative point. Concepts like validity, reliability, representativeness and the interviewer effect signal AO3.
4Building confidence: explain the view in a quotation (Q3a, 8 marks)
Building confidence• Paper 1, Q3(a), explain the view, technique
Question
A quotation states: 'In modern societies, identity is increasingly a matter of individual choice.' Q3(a): 'Explain this view.' (8 marks) How do you do it WITHOUT evaluating yet?
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Q3(a) is explain only — NOT evaluate. Your job is to make the BEST possible case FOR the view. Save criticism for Q3(b). Mixing them up loses marks in both.
2. Step 2
  Unpack the key term in the quotation. 'A matter of individual choice' → this is the POSTMODERNIST view that identity is fluid and constructed by the individual rather than fixed by class, gender or ethnicity.
3. Step 3
  Give 2-3 developed reasons supporting the view. (a) Globalisation gives access to many cultures, widening the menu; (b) identity is now expressed through consumption and lifestyle — what we buy and wear; (c) old fixed identities (e.g. class) have loosened.
4. Step 4
  Bring in supporting theory. Giddens (the reflexive self — identity as an ongoing project); Bauman (liquid identity); Polhemus (the 'supermarket of style' — we 'pick and mix'); Stuart Hall (hybrid identities are actively created).
5. Step 5
  Stay on the view. Every paragraph should answer 'why might identity now be a matter of choice?' — not 'is it true?'.
Answer
Make the case FOR the view only: globalisation widens the cultural menu; identity expressed through consumption/lifestyle; old fixed identities loosened; supported by Giddens (reflexive self), Bauman (liquid identity), Polhemus ('supermarket of style') and Hall (hybrid identities).
Examiner tip
Q3(a) tests AO1 + AO2 — knowledge applied to explain a view. The classic error is evaluating here. Examiners reward a developed, theory-supported explanation of WHY postmodernists hold this view.
5Stretch: use material to argue AGAINST the view (Q3b, 8 marks)
Stretch• Paper 1, Q3(b), argue against, AO3, technique
Question
Same quotation: 'In modern societies, identity is increasingly a matter of individual choice.' Q3(b): 'Using sociological material, argue against this view.' (8 marks) How do you build counter-arguments?
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  This is AO2 + AO3 — pure counter-argument. You must DISAGREE with the view using sociological material. Do not repeat the case for it.
2. Step 2
  Generate counter-points from STRUCTURE. Class still constrains identity (you cannot 'choose' a lifestyle you cannot afford — Skeggs shows class is still deeply felt); patriarchy still shapes gender identity; racism means ethnic identity is often IMPOSED, not chosen.
3. Step 3
  Use theory to attack the view. Marxists argue class position still powerfully shapes life chances and identity; feminists argue gender roles still constrain women; both reject the postmodernist idea of free choice.
4. Step 4
  Develop 2-3 counter-arguments, each with evidence. e.g. 'The 'supermarket of style' assumes money — the poor cannot freely 'shop' for identity, so choice is unequal.' 'You cannot opt out of an ethnic identity that racism assigns to you.'
5. Step 5
  Add a conceptual challenge. Postmodernists OVERSTATE free choice; choice is real but UNEQUAL, shaped by money, racism and patriarchy — so identity is structured as much as chosen.
Answer
Argue against using structure + theory: class limits affordable lifestyles (Skeggs); patriarchy constrains gender; racism imposes ethnic identity; Marxists/feminists reject free choice; the 'supermarket of style' assumes money — choice is real but UNEQUAL.
Examiner tip
Q3(b) tests AO2 + AO3. The top band needs developed counter-arguments supported by sociological material (structural constraints + named perspectives), NOT just assertions. Re-stating the view's strengths wastes the answer.
6Stretch: the 26-mark essay — the A* two-sided structure (Section B)
Stretch• Paper 1, Section B, essay, A* technique, judgement
Question
Question: 'Evaluate the view that identity is now freely chosen rather than fixed by social structure.' (26 marks) How do you reach Band 4?
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Plan a two-sided debate. Band 4 (21-26) needs wide accurate knowledge AND sustained evaluation of BOTH sides with a clear conclusion. Plan: brief intro defining social identity → case FOR (choice) → case AGAINST (structure) → conclusion.
2. Step 2
  Build the FOR case (the choice/postmodernist view). Globalisation widens the cultural menu; identity through consumption/lifestyle (Polhemus's 'supermarket of style'); fluid and reflexive identity (Giddens, Bauman); hybrid identities (Stuart Hall, 'Brasian'); changing gender identity (Sharpe).
3. Step 3
  Build the AGAINST case (the structure view). Class still shapes identity and limits affordable lifestyles (Skeggs, Marxism); patriarchy still constrains gender; racism imposes ethnic identity. Choice is real but UNEQUAL.
4. Step 4
  Weave in AO3 throughout. Don't bolt evaluation on at the end — after each view, judge it (e.g. 'the postmodernist view overstates free choice and ignores how money limits the lifestyles people can adopt').
5. Step 5
  Commit to a supported conclusion. e.g. 'Identity has become more chosen, hybrid and consumption-based — but mainly for the young and affluent; for most people class, patriarchy and racism still constrain it. Identity is therefore both structured AND chosen.' A clear, criterion-based judgement — not fence-sitting — defines the A*.
Answer
Intro (define) → FOR (postmodernism: globalisation, consumption, Giddens/Bauman, hybrid identities, Sharpe) → AGAINST (structure: class/Skeggs, patriarchy, racism; choice is unequal) → evaluate each → committed conclusion that identity is both structured and chosen, specifying WHO can choose.
Examiner tip
Section B essays test AO1 + AO2 + AO3. Band 4 requires a sustained two-sided argument using a range of perspectives, woven evaluation, and an explicit conclusion. The most common A-grade-to-A*-gap is a strong but ONE-SIDED answer (all postmodernism, no structure) with no genuine conclusion.

Model Answers — Social Identity and Change

High-scoring sample answers for social identity and change on the Cambridge International A Level 9699 paper, with examiner-style notes mapping each response to the mark scheme and assessment objectives.

Question 1
9699 Paper 1 Section A, Q1 style4 marks
[EASY] Describe two bases of social identity. (4 marks)
Model answer
Ethnic identity is a sense of who we are based on a shared culture, including common traditions, religion, language and ancestry, which gives members of a group a feeling of belonging.

Age identity is the sense of identity attached to a stage of life such as childhood, youth or old age; these stages are social constructs whose meaning and status vary between cultures and over time.
Why this scores
AO1. Two correct bases, each named (1 mark) and developed with a defining feature plus detail (1 mark) = 4/4. Tight and precise — no introduction needed. Using 'social construct' shows sociological knowledge.
Question 2
9699 Paper 1 Section A, Q2(a) style6 marks
[EASY] Explain two ways in which gender identity has changed in modern societies. (6 marks)
Model answer
Way 1 — female identities have shifted towards careers and independence. Traditionally, female identity centred on marriage, motherhood and the home, but this has changed. Sue Sharpe's research comparing girls in the 1970s with girls in the 1990s found that their priorities had shifted from 'love, marriage and children' towards 'careers, qualifications and being able to support themselves'. This shows femininity is socially constructed and responds to social change rather than being fixed.

Way 2 — a 'crisis of masculinity' as traditional male roles decline. Male identity was traditionally built on being the breadwinner and on manual work, what Connell called hegemonic masculinity. As traditional male manual jobs have declined, some sociologists argue men face a 'crisis of masculinity', unsure of their role and identity. This shows masculinity, too, is changing rather than naturally fixed.
Why this scores
AO1 + AO2. Two distinct, developed ways, each as point → explanation → named theorist/study (Sharpe; Connell), applied to the claim that gender identity has changed. The link sentence ('this shows it is socially constructed') turns description into explanation.
Question 3
9699 Paper 1 Section A, Q2(b) style8 marks
[MEDIUM] Evaluate the strengths and limitations of using unstructured interviews to study young people's sense of identity. (8 marks)
Model answer
Unstructured interviews are open, conversation-style interviews with no fixed list of questions, allowing the researcher to follow up answers and probe in depth.

Strengths. They produce highly valid, in-depth data because young people can describe their identity in their own words, including fluid or hybrid identities (such as a 'British Asian' identity) that a fixed questionnaire might miss. Their flexibility allows the interviewer to probe sensitive areas such as ethnicity or class as they arise. Interactionists favour them because they capture the meanings through which identity is built (verstehen).

Limitations. They are very time-consuming, so samples are small and unrepresentative, making it hard to generalise about youth identity (a positivist criticism). The interviewer effect and social desirability mean young people may give answers that present their identity in a flattering light, reducing validity. Because the interviews are hard to replicate, they have low reliability, and the researcher's interpretation of open answers may introduce bias.

Overall, unstructured interviews offer strong validity and rich insight into fluid and hybrid identity, but they are weak on reliability and representativeness, so they are best combined with other methods through triangulation.
Why this scores
AO1 + AO3. Top band: method defined, then strengths AND limitations APPLIED to studying young people's identity (not generic), using concepts (validity, reliability, representativeness, interviewer effect, verstehen) and finishing with an overall evaluative judgement.
Question 4
9699 Paper 1 Section A, Q3(a) style8 marks
[MEDIUM] The quotation states: 'In modern societies, identity is increasingly a matter of individual choice.' Explain this view. (8 marks)
Model answer
This view reflects the postmodernist argument that identity is no longer simply fixed by social structures such as class, gender or ethnicity, but is increasingly fluid and constructed by the individual.

First, globalisation has given people access to a far wider range of cultures than before, through media, travel and migration. This widens the 'menu' of cultural resources from which people can build an identity, so identity becomes something assembled rather than inherited.

Second, identity is increasingly expressed through consumption and lifestyle — what we buy, wear and watch signals who we are. Polhemus captured this with the phrase 'supermarket of style', suggesting people 'pick and mix' identities almost like shopping. Giddens describes a 'reflexive self', a constant personal project of remaking who we are, while Bauman speaks of 'liquid identity' that is changeable rather than lifelong.

Third, the rise of hybrid identities supports the view. Stuart Hall argued that young people actively create 'new ethnicities', blending cultures into something new, such as a 'Brasian' (British Asian) identity. For all these reasons, supporters argue that in modern, globalised, consumer societies identity has become a matter of individual choice rather than a fixed inheritance.
Why this scores
AO1 + AO2. The answer EXPLAINS the view (it does not evaluate it), giving developed reasons supported by theory (Polhemus, Giddens, Bauman, Hall) and the concepts of globalisation, consumption and hybridity. Resisting the urge to criticise here is exactly what the mark scheme wants.
Question 5
9699 Paper 1 Section A, Q3(b) style8 marks
[HARD] The quotation states: 'In modern societies, identity is increasingly a matter of individual choice.' Using sociological material, argue against this view. (8 marks)
Model answer
Several arguments challenge the claim that identity is now a matter of individual choice.

First, social class still strongly constrains identity. The 'supermarket of style' assumes people can afford to 'shop' for an identity, but the poor cannot. Skeggs's research showed that class is still deeply felt — working-class women worked hard at 'respectability' precisely because class judgements still affect how they are seen. Marxists argue that class position continues to shape life chances and identity.

Second, patriarchy still shapes gender identity. Despite Sharpe's findings of changing female aspirations, women still face unequal expectations, and Connell's hegemonic masculinity still pressures men to conform. Gender identity is therefore not freely chosen for most people.

Third, racism means ethnic identity is often imposed, not chosen. People cannot simply 'opt out' of an ethnic identity that others assign to them through prejudice and discrimination. Ethnic identity can be a label placed on someone, not a free selection.

Finally, postmodernists overstate free choice. Choice is real but unequal — it is shaped by money, racism and patriarchy. Identity is therefore better understood as structured as much as chosen, so the view oversimplifies a complex and unequal process.
Why this scores
AO2 + AO3. Developed counter-arguments drawn from structural constraints (class, patriarchy, racism) and named perspectives (Skeggs, Marxism, feminism, Connell), plus a conceptual challenge to 'individual choice'. It never lapses back into defending the view — pure, supported disagreement.
Question 6
9699 Paper 1 Section B essay style26 marks
[HARD] Evaluate the view that identity is now freely chosen rather than fixed by social structure. (26 marks)
Model answer
Social identity is our sense of who we are, built through socialisation and derived from the groups we belong to. The view in the question reflects the postmodernist claim that identity has shifted from being fixed by structures such as class, gender, ethnicity and age to being freely chosen by the individual. There is real support for this, but the word 'freely' is questionable once we recognise how unequal that choice is. This essay argues that identity has genuinely become more fluid and chosen, but remains powerfully shaped by social structure.

The case that identity is now chosen. Postmodernists argue that globalisation, increased choice and cultural mixing have loosened the old fixed identities. Globalisation gives access to many cultures at once, widening the 'menu' of resources from which identity is built. Identity is increasingly expressed through consumption and lifestyle: Polhemus's 'supermarket of style' suggests people 'pick and mix' who they are, while Giddens describes a 'reflexive self' and Bauman a 'liquid identity' that is changeable rather than lifelong. There is concrete evidence of change: Sue Sharpe found girls' priorities shifted from marriage to careers, and Stuart Hall's work on 'new ethnicities' and hybrid identities ('Brasian') shows young people actively creating identity by blending cultures. Even age and class identities have loosened as lifestyle becomes more important than birth.

The case that identity is still fixed by structure. Modernists and structuralists reply that the postmodernists overstate free choice. Class still matters: the 'supermarket of style' assumes money, and the poor cannot freely 'shop' for an identity. Skeggs showed that class is still deeply felt, and Marxists argue class position continues to shape life chances and identity. Gender is still constrained by patriarchy — women face unequal expectations and men are still measured against hegemonic masculinity (Connell). Ethnicity is often imposed rather than chosen: racism means people cannot opt out of an identity others assign to them. For most people, then, identity remains structured by forces beyond their control.

Evaluation. The postmodernist view is strong in capturing genuine change — identity really has become more hybrid, fluid and consumption-based, especially for the young and affluent. But it can be criticised for ignoring inequality: choice is real but uneven. The structuralist view rightly stresses constraint, but it can be too deterministic, underplaying the genuine creativity and change documented by Hall and Sharpe. The truth lies between the two, and the key is to specify WHO can choose.

Conclusion. Identity has become more freely chosen, hybrid and consumption-based — so the view is partly correct, particularly for young, affluent and urban groups with the resources to construct a lifestyle. However, the word 'freely' is too strong. For most people, class, patriarchy and racism continue to shape and constrain who they can be. Identity is therefore best understood as both structured AND chosen — increasingly negotiated rather than simply free.
Why this scores
Band 4 (AO1+AO2+AO3). Wide accurate knowledge (postmodernism with Giddens, Bauman, Polhemus, Hall; structuralism with Skeggs, Marxism, feminism, Connell, Sharpe), a genuinely TWO-SIDED argument, evaluation woven throughout, and an explicit, criterion-based conclusion that judges the word 'freely' and specifies who can choose. The committed conclusion — not fence-sitting — is the A* signature.

Key Definitions and Keywords — Social Identity and Change

Definitions to memorise and the exact keywords mark schemes credit for social identity and change answers — sharpened from recent examiner reports for the 2026 Cambridge International A Level 9699 sitting.

Social identity
Examiner keyword
Our sense of who we are, built through socialisation and derived from the social groups we belong to (such as class, gender, ethnicity and age).
Related: Personal identity, Socialisation
Socially constructed
Examiner keyword
Created and maintained through social interaction and shared meaning rather than being natural or fixed by biology; identity, childhood and gender are all socially constructed.
Class identity
Examiner keyword
A sense of identity based on social class — occupation, income, lifestyle and values — including traditional working-class solidarity and class consciousness.
Related: Class consciousness
Gender identity
Examiner keyword
The socially constructed sense of femininity or masculinity a person has, shaped by socialisation rather than determined by biological sex.
Hegemonic masculinity (Connell)
The dominant, culturally idealised form of masculinity (e.g. toughness, breadwinning, heterosexuality) against which men are measured.
Example
Pressure on men to be the family breadwinner.
Ethnic identity
Examiner keyword
A sense of identity based on a shared culture, including common traditions, religion, language and ancestry, providing belonging and a sense of difference.
Hybrid identity
Examiner keyword
A new identity created by mixing elements of two or more cultures, such as a 'Brasian' (British Asian) identity (Stuart Hall, 'new ethnicities').
Related: New ethnicities, Diaspora
Age identity
Examiner keyword
The identity attached to a life stage (childhood, youth, old age); these stages are social constructs whose meaning and status vary across cultures and history.
Globalisation
Examiner keyword
The growing interconnection of the world through trade, travel, migration and media, giving people access to many cultures and reshaping identity.
Liquid identity (Bauman)
The postmodern idea that identities are changeable and temporary rather than solid and lifelong, reflecting a fluid, consumer society.
Related: Reflexive self
Supermarket of style (Polhemus)
Examiner keyword
The idea that people now 'pick and mix' identities through consumption and lifestyle, choosing from a wide array of options almost like shopping.
Reflexive self (Giddens)
The idea that in late modernity people constantly reflect on and remake their identity, treating who they are as an ongoing personal project.

Common Mistakes and Misconceptions — Social Identity and Change

The traps other students keep falling into on social identity and change questions — taken from recent Cambridge International A Level 9699 examiner reports and mark schemes — and how to avoid them.

✕Treating identity (class, gender, ethnicity, age) as natural or biologically fixed.
9699 Examiner Reports — Paper 1 (lack of conceptual understanding of identity)
Why it happens
These categories feel obvious and 'real', so students forget the sociological point that they are socially constructed.
How to avoid it
Always state that identity is SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED and back it with variation: gender roles differ between cultures, childhood and old age have different meanings in different societies. This shows AO1 understanding immediately.
✕Claiming class identity 'has disappeared' rather than 'has changed'.
9699 Paper 1 mark scheme (rewarding balanced treatment of change)
Why it happens
Students remember Pakulski & Waters' 'death of class' and overstate it as established fact.
How to avoid it
Balance it: Pakulski & Waters argue class is declining, but Skeggs shows class identity is still deeply felt. The safe position is that class identity has CHANGED FORM, not vanished — and saying so earns AO3 credit.
✕Accepting the postmodernist 'identity is freely chosen' view uncritically.
9699 Examiner Reports — Section B (one-sided answers lacking evaluation)
Why it happens
The 'pick and mix' / 'supermarket of style' idea is memorable and exciting, so students treat it as the whole answer.
How to avoid it
Always add the structural reply: choice is real but UNEQUAL — money, racism and patriarchy still constrain it. The 'supermarket of style' assumes you can afford to shop. A one-sided pro-choice answer caps the mark.
✕Confusing globalisation as 'making everyone the same' with 'more individual choice'.
9699 Examiner Reports — Paper 1 (confusion of globalisation concepts)
Why it happens
Both ideas come up under 'change', so students blur homogenisation and postmodern choice.
How to avoid it
Keep them distinct: homogenisation/Americanisation suggests LESS choice (one global culture); postmodernism suggests MORE choice (pick and mix); glocalisation blends global and local. Using all three correctly raises the level.
✕Discussing identity in general terms with no named theorists.
9699 Examiner Reports — 'use of named studies and theory raises the level'
Why it happens
Identity feels like everyday knowledge, so students rely on common sense rather than sociology.
How to avoid it
Anchor every point to a named theorist: Connell (masculinity), Sharpe (girls' aspirations), Stuart Hall (hybrid identities), Giddens/Bauman/Polhemus (choice), Skeggs (class). This is the difference between AO1 credit and a generic answer.
✕Evaluating the view in Q3(a) when you are only asked to EXPLAIN it.
9699 Paper 1 mark scheme (Q3 part split AO1+AO2 vs AO2+AO3)
Why it happens
Students are trained to evaluate everything and cannot resist arguing both sides.
How to avoid it
Read the command word. Q3(a) = explain the view (make the case FOR it, e.g. for choice); Q3(b) = argue AGAINST it (bring in structure). Save all criticism for 3(b). Doing the wrong skill caps the mark.

Social Identity and Change

Detailed Study Notes

At a glance

What you’ll learn

Quick recap

Memorise this

How it’s examined

Take this whole topic with you

1Getting started: the 4-mark short answer (Q1)

2Getting started: 'Explain two…' (Q2a, 6 marks)

3Building confidence: evaluate a research method (Q2b, 8 marks)

4Building confidence: explain the view in a quotation (Q3a, 8 marks)

5Stretch: use material to argue AGAINST the view (Q3b, 8 marks)

6Stretch: the 26-mark essay — the A* two-sided structure (Section B)

Social identity

Socially constructed

Class identity

Gender identity

Hegemonic masculinity (Connell)

Ethnic identity

Hybrid identity

Age identity

Globalisation

Liquid identity (Bauman)

Supermarket of style (Polhemus)

Reflexive self (Giddens)

✕Treating identity (class, gender, ethnicity, age) as natural or biologically fixed.

✕Claiming class identity 'has disappeared' rather than 'has changed'.

✕Accepting the postmodernist 'identity is freely chosen' view uncritically.

✕Confusing globalisation as 'making everyone the same' with 'more individual choice'.

✕Discussing identity in general terms with no named theorists.

✕Evaluating the view in Q3(a) when you are only asked to EXPLAIN it.