Why is "Confusing classical and operant conditioning" a common mistake in Introduction to Learning Approach?

Why it happens: Both are 'conditioning'. How to avoid it: Classical = learning by ASSOCIATION (before the behaviour); operant = learning by CONSEQUENCES (after the behaviour).

Why is "Treating negative reinforcement as 'punishment'" a common mistake in Introduction to Learning Approach?

Why it happens: 'Negative' sounds bad. How to avoid it: Negative reinforcement REMOVES something unpleasant to INCREASE behaviour. Punishment DECREASES behaviour. They are opposites in effect.

Why is "Describing social learning as just conditioning" a common mistake in Introduction to Learning Approach?

Why it happens: All are 'learning'. How to avoid it: Social learning adds OBSERVATION + IMITATION + mediational processes (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation) — it's not just reinforcement.

Why is "Generic evaluation with no study detail" a common mistake in Introduction to Learning Approach?

Why it happens: Stock evaluation phrases. How to avoid it: Anchor every point in evidence: '3–6 year-olds exposed to aggression' (Bandura), '5 elephants' (Fagen), 'single 9-year-old' (Saavedra).

Learning Approach (AS Level)Cambridge International A Level Psychology 9990

Introduction to Learning Approach

Q: Why is "Writing 'behaviour is learned' without naming the mechanisms" a common mistake in Introduction to Learning Approach?

Why it happens: Students learn the gist only. How to avoid it: Name classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning, and add an example for the second mark. Source: 9990 mark schemes

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The Learning Approach — Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 Study Notes (2024-2026)

The learning approach explains behaviour as learned from the environment through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. This note builds those three mechanisms in full, shows how the three core studies illustrate them, and drills the 'in-context' evaluation that wins Paper 1 marks.

At a glance

Assumption 1: we begin as a blank slate — experience and environment shape behaviour, and these changes are directly observable.
Assumption 2: we learn through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning, understood via the stimulus–response model.
Classical conditioning (Pavlov): learning by association — a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus.
Operant conditioning (Skinner): learning through consequences — reinforcement (positive/negative) and punishment; shaping; chaining.
Social learning (Bandura): learning by observing and imitating models (vicarious reinforcement).
Three core studies: Bandura et al. (aggression/Bobo doll), Fagen et al. (elephant learning), Saavedra & Silverman (button phobia).
Home debate: this is the nurture approach. Also: use of children (Bandura, Saavedra), use of animals (Fagen).
Exam gold: Paper 1 Section B 'evaluate' = 2 strengths + 2 weaknesses, in context, including the named issue (PEEL).

What you’ll learn

Mapped to the Cambridge International A Level 9990 syllabus (2024-2026).

Outline the two main assumptions of the learning approach.
Describe classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory, with the key terms for each.
For each core study, show understanding of the psychology being investigated, background, aim(s), procedure, ethical issues, results, conclusions and strengths/weaknesses.
Describe and evaluate the methodology used in each learning core study.
Consider how each study relates to the AS issues and debates (application; individual & situational; nature vs nurture; use of children; use of animals).

The two assumptions — learn them word-perfect

We start as a blank slate; behaviour is learned from the environment via conditioning and social learning (stimulus–response).

The learning approach (behaviourism + social learning) says behaviour is learned from the environment, not inborn. It focuses on observable behaviour rather than hidden mental processes.

Assumption 1 — We all begin life as a blank slate ('tabula rasa'). Experiences and interactions with the environment shape our behaviour, and these changes are directly observable.

We are not born with behaviours; we acquire them through experience.
The approach studies what can be seen and measured (behaviour), not internal thoughts.

Assumption 2 — We learn through the processes of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and social learning. This can be understood using the stimulus–response model.

Behaviour is a response to a stimulus in the environment.
There are three learning mechanisms (the next section explains each in full).

Why the wording matters. A 2-mark "outline one assumption" question is pure recall — write the assumption and give a quick example, and you bank both marks.

Assumption 1 = blank slate; environment shapes observable behaviour.
Assumption 2 = learn via classical + operant conditioning + social learning (stimulus–response).
Focus on OBSERVABLE behaviour (not internal mental processes).
Always pair an assumption with a quick example for full marks.

The three learning mechanisms (background substance)

Classical = association; operant = consequences (reinforcement/punishment, shaping, chaining); social learning = observation/imitation.

Your textbook teaches the studies; this section gives you the theory behind them — and each core study is really a demonstration of one mechanism.

1. Classical conditioning (Pavlov) — learning by association.

Before: an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (food) → unconditioned response (UCR) (salivation). A neutral stimulus (NS) (bell) does nothing.
During: the NS (bell) is repeatedly paired with the UCS (food).
After: the bell alone becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) → conditioned response (CR) (salivation).
Useful terms: generalisation (similar stimuli trigger the CR), extinction (the CR fades if the CS is no longer paired). → This explains the origin of a phobia in Saavedra & Silverman.

2. Operant conditioning (Skinner) — learning through consequences.

Positive reinforcement = adding something pleasant → behaviour increases (e.g. food reward).
Negative reinforcement = removing something unpleasant → behaviour increases.
Punishment = a consequence that decreases behaviour.
Primary reinforcer = satisfies a basic need (food); secondary reinforcer = associated with a primary one (a clicker/'good', money).
Shaping = rewarding successive approximations toward a target behaviour; behavioural chaining = linking trained behaviours into a sequence. → This is exactly how Fagen et al. trained elephants.

3. Social learning theory (Bandura) — learning by observation and imitation.

We learn by watching models and imitating them, especially if we identify with the model (e.g. same sex).
Vicarious reinforcement = we're more likely to copy behaviour we see being rewarded.
Four mediational processes: attention → retention → reproduction → motivation. → This is the basis of Bandura et al.

Classical (Pavlov): NS + UCS → CS → CR; generalisation, extinction → Saavedra & Silverman.
Operant (Skinner): +/− reinforcement, punishment, primary/secondary reinforcers, shaping, chaining → Fagen.
Social learning (Bandura): observe + imitate models; vicarious reinforcement; attention–retention–reproduction–motivation → Bandura.
Stimulus–response underlies all three.

The three core studies — what each one is 'famous for'

Bandura = children imitate aggression; Fagen = positive reinforcement trains elephants; Saavedra = treating a button phobia.

Build a one-line 'hook' for each — it speeds recall under pressure.

Study	Mechanism / 'psychology investigated'	Headline finding
Bandura et al. (1961)	Social learning theory; aggression	Children who watched an aggressive model imitated the aggression — and imitated same-sex models more
Fagen et al. (2014)	Operant conditioning; reinforcement, shaping, chaining	Secondary positive reinforcement trained elephants to do a voluntary trunk wash — a humane training method
Saavedra & Silverman (2002)	Classical conditioning; evaluative learning; phobias	A boy's button phobia (started by classical conditioning) was treated by tackling disgust as well as fear

How they fit the assumptions: all three show behaviour being learned from the environment (assumption 1), each via a different learning mechanism (assumption 2).

Bandura → children imitate adult aggression (social learning).
Fagen → positive reinforcement trains elephants (operant).
Saavedra & Silverman → button phobia learned + treated (classical/evaluative).
Memorise a one-line 'hook' for each.

Research methods you must spot in this approach

A lab experiment with matched pairs + observation, a field observation, and a case study.

The learning studies cover a wide methodological range:

Laboratory experiment — Bandura (controlled room, manipulated model type/sex), using a matched-pairs design (children matched on pre-existing aggression).
Observation with behavioural categories — Bandura (one-way mirror; imitative physical/verbal aggression coded) and Fagen (success coded on a behavioural checklist).
Field study / controlled observation — Fagen (real working elephants in Nepal).
Case study — Saavedra & Silverman (a single 9-year-old boy, studied in depth with interviews, rating scales and observations → triangulation).
Longitudinal element — Saavedra & Silverman (a 12-month follow-up).

Why this matters for A:* link a feature to a strength/weakness, e.g. "Bandura's matched-pairs design controlled for the children's pre-existing aggression, so differences in imitation are more likely due to the model — increasing validity."

Bandura → lab experiment + matched pairs + observation.
Fagen → field observation with a behavioural checklist.
Saavedra & Silverman → case study (interviews + scales + observation) + follow-up.
Observation with behavioural categories supports inter-rater reliability.

Issues & debates that recur in the learning approach

Nature vs nurture (nurture!), use of children, use of animals, application, individual vs situational.

Relate each core study to the relevant issues and debates:

Nature vs nurture. This is the nurture approach — all three studies show behaviour being learned (aggression imitated; elephants trained; a phobia acquired and unlearned).
Use of children in research. Bandura (3–6 year-olds exposed to aggression) and Saavedra & Silverman (a 9-year-old) — discuss ethics (consent, protection from harm) and value.
Use of animals in research. Fagen (elephants) — but here the animals' welfare is the point, so the ethics are largely positive; still discuss generalisability.
Application to everyday life. Bandura → media violence/TV censorship/parenting; Fagen → humane animal training and welfare; Saavedra & Silverman → treating phobias.
Individual vs situational explanations. Mostly situational (the model, the reinforcement, the conditioning) — though individuals differ in how readily they learn (Fagen).

Exam phrasing tip: when a question names an issue (e.g. "…about the use of children"), you must include it to reach the top band.

Nature vs nurture → the NURTURE approach (everything is learned).
Use of children (Bandura, Saavedra) → ethics + value.
Use of animals (Fagen) → welfare-positive, but discuss generalisability.
Application: media violence, animal welfare, phobia treatment.

How the Learning Approach is examined (Paper 1)

Section A = short answers on the studies; Section B = describe + evaluate, with a named issue.

Paper 1 (Approaches, Issues and Debates) is 1 hour 30 minutes, 60 marks, testing AO1, AO2 and AO3.

Section A — short-answer questions test recall of the studies and the conditioning/social-learning terms. Command words: state, outline, describe, identify, suggest, explain.

Section B — extended response & essay asks you to describe a study (~6 marks) and evaluate it (8–10 marks), and may compare studies.

The key skill — the 'evaluate' answer:

Two strengths and two weaknesses (not a long list).
Include the named issue.
Be in context — every point uses evidence from that study.
Use a PEEL chain: Point → Explain → Evidence → Link.

A point like "the sample was unrepresentative" scores low. "Bandura used children only from Stanford University Nursery School, so the results may not generalise to children from other cultures" scores high — specific and explained.

Section A = short recall of studies + conditioning terms.
Section B = describe (~6) + evaluate (8–10), maybe compare.
Evaluate = 2 strengths + 2 weaknesses, include the named issue.
Every evaluation point must be IN CONTEXT and explained (PEEL).

How it’s examined

Examined on Paper 1 (Approaches, Issues and Debates) — Section A short-answer questions on the three learning core studies and the conditioning/social-learning terms, and Section B describe (~6 marks) + evaluate (8–10 marks). Recurring tasks: outline an assumption (2 marks); define a conditioning term; describe a study's aim/procedure/results; evaluate 'in terms of two strengths and two weaknesses' with a named issue (e.g. use of children, use of animals, ecological validity, generalisations). Examiner reports stress evaluation must be IN CONTEXT.

Sources: Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus (2024-2026); 9990 Learner Guide (for examination from 2024); 9990 Scheme of Work (for examination from 2024); 9990 Specimen Paper 1 and example candidate responses. Last reviewed 2026-05-21.

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Step-by-step worked examples — Introduction to Learning Approach

Step-by-step solutions to past-paper-style questions on introduction to learning approach, written exactly the way a tutor would explain them at the board.

1Outline one assumption of the learning approach (2 marks)
Getting started• assumptions, AO1
Question
Outline one assumption of the learning approach. (2 marks)
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  State the assumption. 'We learn through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning (stimulus–response).'
2. Step 2
  Add an example. e.g. 'For example, a child can learn aggression by imitating an adult model.'
Answer
We learn via classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning — e.g. imitating an aggressive model. (2)
Examiner tip
Other acceptable assumption: 'we begin as a blank slate; the environment shapes observable behaviour.' Name the mechanisms or you cap at 1 mark.
2Identify the study and the learning mechanism (2 marks)
Getting started• core studies, AO1
Question
Identify the learning core study that used operant conditioning, and name the type of reinforcement it used. (2 marks)
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Study: Fagen et al. (2014) — elephant training.
2. Step 2
  Reinforcement: secondary positive reinforcement (an acoustic signal paired with food).
Answer
Fagen et al. (2014); secondary positive reinforcement. (2)
Examiner tip
Match study to mechanism: Bandura = social learning; Fagen = operant; Saavedra & Silverman = classical/evaluative.
3Explain how a study illustrates a mechanism (4 marks)
Building confidence• mechanisms, AO2
Question
Explain how the study by Fagen et al. illustrates operant conditioning. (4 marks)
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Operant conditioning = learning through consequences (reinforcement).
2. Step 2
  The elephants received a secondary reinforcer ('good') paired with a primary reinforcer (food) when they performed a behaviour.
3. Step 3
  Behaviours were shaped (rewarding successive approximations) and chained into the full trunk wash.
4. Step 4
  Because the reward followed the behaviour, the behaviour increased — exactly the operant principle of positive reinforcement.
Answer
Fagen rewarded trunk-wash behaviours with a secondary reinforcer ('good') + food; shaping + chaining built the sequence — positive reinforcement increasing behaviour. (4)
Examiner tip
AO2 marks come from mapping the study onto the mechanism using its terms (positive reinforcement, shaping, chaining).
4Application to everyday life (4 marks)
Building confidence• application, AO2, issues-debates
Question
Using a learning core study, explain how the learning approach can be applied to everyday life. (4 marks)
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Choose Bandura: children imitated an aggressive model.
2. Step 2
  Real-world use: this informs concerns about children copying aggression from the media.
3. Step 3
  It supports measures such as age ratings/TV regulation and being careful what aggression children are exposed to.
4. Step 4
  Parents and broadcasters can limit aggressive models to reduce imitated aggression.
Answer
Bandura → children imitate aggressive models → supports media age-ratings/regulation and limiting children's exposure to aggression. (4)
Examiner tip
Link a SPECIFIC finding to a SPECIFIC application. Vague 'psychology helps society' caps at 1–2 marks.
5Describe how two learning studies used different methods (6 marks)
Stretch• research methods, AO1, AO2
Question
Describe how two learning core studies used different research methods. (6 marks)
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Study 1 method: Bandura used a controlled laboratory experiment with a matched-pairs design and observation.
2. Step 2
  What it allowed: control of variables and cause-and-effect (the model caused imitation), and reliable coded observation.
3. Step 3
  Study 2 method: Saavedra & Silverman used a case study of a single boy, with interviews, distress ratings and observation.
4. Step 4
  What it allowed: rich, in-depth qualitative data and triangulation, but no control and no cause-and-effect.
5. Step 5
  Make the contrast explicit: the experiment (Bandura) shows cause but is artificial; the case study (Saavedra) is rich and real but cannot be generalised.
6. Step 6
  (Alternative pairing) Bandura (lab experiment) vs Fagen (field observation) to contrast control with ecological validity.
Answer
Bandura: lab experiment + matched pairs → control, cause-and-effect. Saavedra & Silverman: case study (interviews/ratings/observation) → rich data, no cause. Contrast = control vs depth. (6)
Examiner tip
Use comparison language ('whereas'). Two correct methods with a clear difference and an evaluative comment = top band.
6Build one in-context evaluation point (PEEL) (4 marks)
Stretch• evaluation, AO3, exam-technique
Question
Evaluate the learning approach by explaining one weakness, using a core study. (4 marks)
Step-by-step solution
1. Step 1
  Point. Learning studies can raise serious ethical concerns, especially with children.
2. Step 2
  Explain. Studies must protect participants from harm, but learning studies sometimes expose them to distress.
3. Step 3
  Evidence (in context). Bandura exposed 3–6 year-olds to aggression and deliberately frustrated them.
4. Step 4
  Link. This risks teaching/normalising aggression that could persist — a protection-from-harm issue that limits how such research should be done.
Answer
Weakness: ethics. Bandura exposed 3–6 year-olds to aggression and frustration, risking lasting harm — a protection-from-harm concern. (4)
Examiner tip
The in-context evidence ('3–6 year-olds exposed to aggression') + explanation is what scores. 'It was unethical' alone is generic.

Model Answers — Introduction to Learning Approach

High-scoring sample answers for introduction to learning approach on the Cambridge International A Level 9990 paper, with examiner-style notes mapping each response to the mark scheme and assessment objectives.

Question 1
9990 Paper 1 Section B (describe) style6 marks
Q (6 marks). Describe the two assumptions of the learning approach and, for each, briefly explain how one core study supports it.
Model answer
The first assumption is that we begin life as a blank slate and our behaviour is shaped by the environment, with these changes directly observable. This is supported by Bandura et al. (1961): children who watched an aggressive adult model later imitated that aggression, showing that an environmental experience produced observable new behaviour.

The second assumption is that we learn through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning (the stimulus–response model). This is supported by Fagen et al. (2014): elephants were trained to perform a trunk wash using secondary positive reinforcement (an acoustic signal paired with food), with behaviours shaped and chained — a clear demonstration of operant conditioning.
Why this scores
Why this scores well. Both assumptions are accurate (AO1) and each is applied to a named study with specific evidence (AO2). Naming the precise mechanism (operant conditioning; imitation) lifts it.
Question 2
9990 Paper 1 Section B (evaluate) style8 marks
Q (8 marks). Evaluate the learning approach as a way of explaining human behaviour. Refer to at least two core studies.
Model answer
Strength 1 — scientific, controlled evidence. The learning approach often uses controlled experiments with objective, observable measures, allowing cause and effect. Bandura et al. (1961) used a controlled lab experiment with a matched-pairs design and coded observation, so the finding that children imitate modelled aggression is well supported and replicable.

Strength 2 — powerful real-world applications. Learning principles can be applied very practically. Fagen et al. (2014) used secondary positive reinforcement to train elephants humanely for health checks, improving welfare — and the same principles underpin treatments such as the phobia treatment in Saavedra & Silverman (2002).

Weakness 1 — ethical concerns. Learning studies can risk harm. Bandura exposed 3–6 year-olds to aggression and deliberately frustrated them, raising protection-from-harm and consent issues.

Weakness 2 — it can ignore biology and free choice. By treating behaviour as learned from the environment, the approach can underplay biological factors. For example, the learning account of aggression (Bandura) does not consider hormones or genetics, which other research suggests also matter — so it offers only part of the picture.

Conclusion. The learning approach is scientific, applicable and well-evidenced, but its ethical risks and its tendency to overlook biology mean it is strongest when combined with other approaches rather than used alone.
Why this scores
Why this reaches the top band. Two strengths and two weaknesses, each in context with study evidence, PEEL-shaped, plus a reasoned conclusion (AO3).
Question 3
9990 Paper 1 Section B (describe) style6 marks
Q (6 marks). Describe the three learning mechanisms used by the learning approach, giving one core study example of each.
Model answer
Classical conditioning is learning by association: a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that triggers a conditioned response. This is shown in Saavedra & Silverman (2002), where buttons became associated with a distressing event, producing a phobic (fear/disgust) response.

Operant conditioning is learning through consequences: behaviour followed by reinforcement increases. This is shown in Fagen et al. (2014), where elephants were trained with secondary positive reinforcement (an acoustic signal paired with food), using shaping and chaining to build the trunk wash.

Social learning is learning by observing and imitating models, especially ones we identify with. This is shown in Bandura et al. (1961), where children imitated an adult model's aggression — and imitated same-sex models more.
Why this scores
Why this scores well. Each mechanism is correctly defined and matched to the right core study with specific evidence — a clean, high-AO1 structure that examiners reward.
Question 4
9990 Paper 1 Section B (discussion) style8 marks
Q (8 marks). 'The learning approach shows that all behaviour is learned from the environment.' Discuss how far you agree, using core studies.
Model answer
Support for the claim. The learning core studies give strong evidence that behaviour is learned. Bandura et al. (1961) showed children acquire aggression simply by imitating a model; Fagen et al. (2014) showed complex behaviour (a trunk wash) can be built entirely through reinforcement; and Saavedra & Silverman (2002) showed a phobia is both acquired (classical conditioning) and unlearned (exposure + cognitive techniques). All three support the nurture view.

Against the claim. 'All' is too strong. The studies do not rule out biology. Aggression, for instance, is also linked to hormones and genetics, which the learning account ignores. Individual differences also appear within learning studies themselves — in Fagen, elephants varied in how quickly and fully they learned, suggesting biological/temperamental factors interact with reinforcement. So behaviour seems to result from learning interacting with biology, not learning alone.

Conclusion. The learning approach provides excellent evidence that much behaviour is learned, so the claim is largely supported for the behaviours these studies examine. But 'all behaviour' overstates it: biology and individual differences also play a part, so the most accurate view is interactionist — nature and nurture together.
Why this scores
Why this reaches the top band. It argues both sides with specific study evidence, uses the individual differences in Fagen as a neat counter-point, and reaches a measured, interactionist conclusion (AO3).

Key Definitions and Keywords — Introduction to Learning Approach

Definitions to memorise and the exact keywords mark schemes credit for introduction to learning approach answers — sharpened from recent examiner reports for the 2026 Cambridge International A Level 9990 sitting.

Learning approach
Examiner keyword
An approach that explains behaviour as learned from the environment through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.
Classical conditioning
Examiner keyword
Learning by association: a neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response.
Operant conditioning
Examiner keyword
Learning through consequences: behaviour followed by reinforcement increases; behaviour followed by punishment decreases.
Social learning theory
Examiner keyword
Learning by observing and imitating models, especially ones we identify with; influenced by vicarious reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement
Examiner keyword
Adding something pleasant after a behaviour so that the behaviour increases (e.g. giving food).
Negative reinforcement
Examiner keyword
Removing something unpleasant after a behaviour so that the behaviour increases. (Different from punishment.)
Shaping
Examiner keyword
Reinforcing successive approximations — behaviours that get closer and closer to a target behaviour.
Behavioural chaining
Linking several separately trained behaviours into a sequence to perform a complex action (e.g. the trunk wash).
Tabula rasa (blank slate)
The idea that we are born with no innate behaviours; everything is learned from experience.
Vicarious reinforcement
Being more likely to imitate a behaviour after seeing someone else rewarded for it.

Common Mistakes and Misconceptions — Introduction to Learning Approach

The traps other students keep falling into on introduction to learning approach questions — taken from recent Cambridge International A Level 9990 examiner reports and mark schemes — and how to avoid them.

✕Writing 'behaviour is learned' without naming the mechanisms
9990 mark schemes
Why it happens
Students learn the gist only.
How to avoid it
Name classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning, and add an example for the second mark.
✕Confusing classical and operant conditioning
Why it happens
Both are 'conditioning'.
How to avoid it
Classical = learning by ASSOCIATION (before the behaviour); operant = learning by CONSEQUENCES (after the behaviour).
✕Treating negative reinforcement as 'punishment'
Why it happens
'Negative' sounds bad.
How to avoid it
Negative reinforcement REMOVES something unpleasant to INCREASE behaviour. Punishment DECREASES behaviour. They are opposites in effect.
✕Describing social learning as just conditioning
Why it happens
All are 'learning'.
How to avoid it
Social learning adds OBSERVATION + IMITATION + mediational processes (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation) — it's not just reinforcement.
✕Generic evaluation with no study detail
Why it happens
Stock evaluation phrases.
How to avoid it
Anchor every point in evidence: '3–6 year-olds exposed to aggression' (Bandura), '5 elephants' (Fagen), 'single 9-year-old' (Saavedra).

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Introduction to Learning Approach

Short Study Notes in the form of Slides

Short Study Notes — Introduction to Learning Approach

Detailed Notes

What you’ll learn

How it’s examined

1Outline one assumption of the learning approach (2 marks)

2Identify the study and the learning mechanism (2 marks)

3Explain how a study illustrates a mechanism (4 marks)

4Application to everyday life (4 marks)

5Describe how two learning studies used different methods (6 marks)

6Build one in-context evaluation point (PEEL) (4 marks)

Learning approach

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Social learning theory

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Shaping

Behavioural chaining

Tabula rasa (blank slate)

Vicarious reinforcement

✕Writing 'behaviour is learned' without naming the mechanisms

✕Confusing classical and operant conditioning

✕Treating negative reinforcement as 'punishment'

✕Describing social learning as just conditioning

✕Generic evaluation with no study detail

Practice questions

Past paper style quiz

Assess your understanding