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Detailed notes on Automated and emerging technologies for Cambridge IGCSE Computer Science, covering key concepts, explanations, examples, and exam-focused revision points.
The moral and legal questions raised by computing: privacy and data protection, copyright, software-licensing categories (free, freeware, shareware, open-source, proprietary), responsible AI, and the environmental impact of always-on devices and large-model training.
Mapped to the Cambridge IGCSE 0478 syllabus (2026-2028).
Five labels with overlapping meanings — get them right.
Software is sold/distributed under different licensing categories. Cambridge expects you to keep these straight.
Free software (capital F or 'libre'). Users have the FOUR FREEDOMS:
'Free' here means FREEDOM, not zero cost. Free software MAY cost money. Examples: GNU/Linux, GIMP, LibreOffice.
Freeware. Software available at NO COST but with the source code KEPT CLOSED. Users can't modify or redistribute. 'Free' as in PRICE only. Examples: Adobe Acrobat Reader, Skype (older versions).
Shareware. Software you can use FREE for a TRIAL PERIOD or with LIMITED features. To unlock the full version (or after the trial), the user must PAY. Examples: WinRAR, classic Windows shareware.
Open-source software. Source code is publicly available; users can study, modify and redistribute (subject to a licence such as GPL, MIT, Apache). Often (but not always) also free of cost. Examples: Linux, Firefox, Blender, VSCode.
Proprietary software. Owned by an individual or company. Source code is CLOSED. Users licence it under restrictive terms — typically can't modify, can't redistribute, can't use beyond a specified user count. Examples: Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop, AutoCAD.
Cambridge tip. The single most-tested confusion: FREE vs FREEWARE. Free = FREEDOM (modify + redistribute). Freeware = no COST only. Don't merge them.
Legal right + technical measures to enforce it.
Copyright is a legal right that gives the creator of original work (including software, music, art, writing) EXCLUSIVE control over its reproduction, distribution and adaptation for a set period (typically 70 years after the creator's death in the UK).
What infringement looks like.
How developers protect copyright.
Why this matters. Without copyright protection, developers wouldn't be paid for their work, and the software industry as we know it couldn't sustain itself. Counter-argument: overly aggressive DRM can hurt legitimate users (always-online requirements that fail when servers shut down, restrictions on resale).
Cambridge tip. Mark scheme expects students to know BOTH copyright (the legal right) AND the technical measures used to enforce it.
Laws governing how personal data is collected, stored and used.
Personal data is any information that can identify a living person — name, address, email, phone number, ID numbers, IP addresses, biometric data, location.
Data-protection laws (e.g. GDPR in the EU/UK, similar laws in other jurisdictions) typically require:
Why this matters. Personal data breaches expose individuals to identity theft, harassment, discrimination, financial fraud. Companies that breach data-protection laws face large fines (GDPR fines can be 4% of global revenue).
Cambridge tip. Mark schemes test students on the principles (collection, storage, use) and the user's RIGHTS (access, correction, deletion). Both halves matter.
Energy, e-waste, resource extraction — three big costs.
Computing isn't free of physical impact, even though it can FEEL intangible.
Energy use. Data centres alone consume around 1-2% of global electricity (and rising fast with AI). Cryptocurrency mining and large-model AI training are particularly intensive. Always-on home devices (smart speakers, routers, modems) add up across billions of households.
E-waste. Short device lifespans (smartphones replaced every 2-3 years, computers every 4-5) generate around 50 million tonnes of electronic waste per year globally — and rising. Toxic heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium) leach from landfilled e-waste into soil and groundwater.
Resource extraction. Manufacturing chips and devices needs rare-earth metals (lithium, cobalt, neodymium, tantalum). Mining damages ecosystems, uses huge amounts of water, and often happens in countries with weak labour protections.
Carbon emissions. Tied to all the above — manufacturing, electricity, shipping, end-of-life processing.
Mitigations.
Cambridge tip. Top-band candidates can identify SPECIFIC impacts AND name a mitigation for each. Treating environmental impact as a side issue is a common mark loss in 2026-2028 papers (the syllabus puts more weight on it).
Bias, accountability, jobs, privacy, autonomy.
Computing's recent acceleration in AI and automation has surfaced new ethical questions.
Bias. AI inherits biases in its training data. Famous failures: hiring tools that downgraded female candidates because historical hires were mostly male; facial-recognition systems that misidentified darker-skinned faces at higher rates; predictive-policing tools that over-targeted minority neighbourhoods.
Accountability. When an AI causes harm — a wrongful arrest, a denied loan, a misdiagnosis — who is responsible? The data provider, the model trainer, the deployer, or the user? Legal systems are still catching up.
Job displacement. Beyond manual labour, AI threatens cognitive jobs — translation, paralegal research, customer service, parts of programming, healthcare imaging. Society needs to plan for transitions.
Privacy and surveillance. AI makes large-scale surveillance cheap. Combined with facial recognition and location tracking, it can erode the privacy assumptions democracies have relied on.
Autonomous weapons. Lethal autonomous weapons systems can decide to kill without human intervention. Subject of intense ethical and treaty debates.
Misuse. Deepfakes for fraud, harassment or political manipulation. Personalised disinformation at scale. Phishing emails written by AI are more convincing than ever.
Cambridge tip. Mark schemes reward NUANCED views — acknowledging that AI offers real benefits AND raises real risks, and that responsible deployment matters.
Verbatim phrases and definitions Cambridge mark schemes credit.
Computer ethics appears on most Paper 1s. Most-tested questions: software-licensing categories (6-8 marks), copyright and protections (4-6 marks), environmental impact (4-6 marks), AI ethical issues (4-6 marks). Examiner reports flag the free-vs-freeware confusion as the most common error.
Sources: Cambridge IGCSE Computer Science 0478 syllabus (2026-2028); 0478 Examiner Reports 2022-2024; 0478/12 May/Jun 2023 question paper and mark scheme. Last reviewed 2026-05-09.
Step-by-step solutions to past-paper-style questions on computer ethics, written exactly the way a tutor would explain them at the board.
Question
Explain what copyright is and state TWO ways software developers protect their copyright. (3 marks)
Step-by-step solution
Step 1
Copyright (1 mark). A legal right that gives the creator of original work exclusive control over its reproduction, distribution and adaptation for a set period. Copying, sharing or modifying without permission is infringement.
Step 2
Two protections (2 marks). (a) PRODUCT KEYS / activation — software requires a unique key tied to a purchase. (b) DIGITAL RIGHTS MANAGEMENT (DRM) — built-in checks that prevent unauthorised copying or running. (Other valid: end-user licence agreements / EULAs, code obfuscation, online-only authentication, watermarking.)
Answer
Copyright = legal right over original work. Protected via product keys, DRM, EULAs, online activation, code obfuscation.
Examiner tip
'Explain' carries the 1 mark for the definition; the two protections are 1 mark each. State distinct, named methods — vague answers like 'lock it' score nothing.
Question
State ONE difference between plagiarism and copyright infringement. (2 marks)
Step-by-step solution
Step 1
Plagiarism (1 mark). Presenting someone else's work, words or ideas as your OWN without crediting the source. It is an ETHICAL / academic offence — it is about dishonesty, not necessarily about who owns the work.
Step 2
Copyright infringement (1 mark). Copying, distributing or using protected work WITHOUT the owner's permission. It is a LEGAL offence — it is about breaking the law that protects the owner's rights.
Answer
Plagiarism = passing off another's work as your own (an ethical/academic offence). Copyright infringement = using protected work without permission (a legal offence). You can plagiarise out-of-copyright work, and you can infringe copyright while fully crediting the author.
Examiner tip
AO1. One clear point of difference earns both marks. The classic trap is treating them as identical — examiners want the ethical-vs-legal contrast.
Question
A student is writing a report using information found online. Describe TWO ways the student can avoid plagiarism. (4 marks)
Step-by-step solution
Step 1
Cite / reference sources (2 marks). Whenever the student uses another author's words, data or ideas, they should ADD A CITATION naming the source (author, title, URL/date) and include a full reference list / bibliography. This credits the original author so the work is not passed off as the student's own.
Step 2
Quote or paraphrase correctly (2 marks). Direct wording must be placed in QUOTATION MARKS and attributed; otherwise the student should PARAPHRASE in their own words AND still cite the source for the idea. (Other valid: use plagiarism-detection software to check; keep notes of where each fact came from.)
Answer
Cite/reference every source used (author + title + URL) with a bibliography; put any directly copied wording in quotation marks and attribute it, or paraphrase in your own words and still cite the idea. Running the work through plagiarism-detection software also helps.
Examiner tip
AO1/AO2. Two developed methods at 2 marks each. 'Reword it' alone is not enough — the source of the idea must STILL be credited; that is the point candidates most often miss.
Question
Distinguish between FREE software, FREEWARE, SHAREWARE and OPEN-SOURCE software. (8 marks)
Step-by-step solution
Step 1
Free software (2 marks). Users have the FOUR freedoms: to run, study, modify and redistribute the software (with the source code). 'Free' as in FREEDOM. May or may not cost money.
Step 2
Freeware (2 marks). Software available at NO COST but where the source code is NOT shared. Users CANNOT modify it. Free as in PRICE only.
Step 3
Shareware (2 marks). Free to TRY for a limited period or with limited features. To unlock full functionality (or after the trial), the user must PAY.
Step 4
Open-source software (2 marks). Source code is publicly available so anyone can read, modify and redistribute it. Often (but not always) free of cost. Examples: Linux, Firefox, Blender.
Answer
Free = freedoms (run/study/modify/redistribute). Freeware = no cost but no source. Shareware = trial; pay to unlock. Open-source = source code public; modify and redistribute permitted.
Examiner tip
Examiner reports flag candidates who confuse 'free' (freedom) with 'freeware' (no cost). They are NOT the same.
Question
Discuss THREE environmental impacts of computing. (6 marks)
Step-by-step solution
Step 1
Energy use (2 marks). Data centres and always-on devices consume large amounts of electricity. AI model training and cryptocurrency mining are particularly intensive — equivalent to mid-sized countries.
Step 2
E-waste (2 marks). Short device lifespans (smartphones replaced every ~2-3 years) generate millions of tonnes of electronic waste annually. Toxic heavy metals (lead, mercury) leach into soil if landfilled.
Step 3
Resource extraction (2 marks). Manufacturing devices needs rare-earth metals (lithium, cobalt, neodymium). Mining damages ecosystems and uses large amounts of water and energy.
Answer
Energy use (data centres, AI training, mining), e-waste (short device lifespans, toxic disposal), resource extraction (rare-earth metals). Mitigations: efficient hardware, recycling programmes, longer software support, renewable-powered data centres.
Examiner tip
AO2/AO3. 'Discuss' rewards developed points (impact + why it matters), not a one-word list. Three impacts at 2 marks each; naming a mitigation strengthens the discussion.
Question
An online shopping company stores customers' personal data, including names, addresses and payment details. Discuss the ethical issues the company must consider when collecting and storing this data. (6 marks)
Step-by-step solution
Step 1
Consent and purpose (2 marks). The company should only collect data the customer has agreed to provide and use it ONLY for the stated purpose (e.g. processing an order). Selling or sharing it with third parties without consent breaches the customer's privacy.
Step 2
Security of stored data (2 marks). Personal and payment data must be protected — e.g. ENCRYPTION, access controls and secure servers — so that a data breach does not expose customers to fraud or identity theft. The company has a duty of care to keep it safe.
Step 3
Retention, accuracy and rights (2 marks). Data should be kept ACCURATE, kept no LONGER than necessary, and customers should be able to view, correct or request deletion of their data. This is required by data-protection law (e.g. GDPR).
Answer
Collect only data the customer consents to and use it solely for the stated purpose (no unauthorised sharing/selling); secure it with encryption and access controls so a breach can't lead to fraud; keep it accurate and no longer than necessary, and honour the customer's right to view, correct or delete it — all in line with data-protection law.
Examiner tip
AO2/AO3 'Discuss' question. Credit is for applying ethics to THIS scenario (shopping/payment data), not generic privacy statements. Three developed issues at 2 marks each.
High-scoring sample answers for computer ethics on the Cambridge IGCSE 0478 paper, with examiner-style notes mapping each response to the mark scheme and assessment objectives.
State what is meant by the term copyright. [1]
Model answer
Copyright is a legal right that gives the creator of original work (such as software, text or images) exclusive control over how it is copied, distributed and adapted, so others cannot use it without permission.
Why this scores
AO1 (1 mark). One clear point — 'legal right / protects original work from being copied without permission' — earns the mark. A bare 'you own it' is too vague.
A school gives every student an acceptable use policy to sign. State two rules you would expect this policy to contain. [2]
Model answer
Any two of: do not install or download unauthorised software; do not access, share or post inappropriate/offensive material; do not attempt to access other users' accounts or files; do not share your password / login details; use the equipment only for educational purposes; do not damage or interfere with the hardware or network.
Why this scores
AO1 (1 mark per valid rule, max 2). Rules must be distinct responsible-use behaviours; two near-identical points (e.g. 'don't download games' / 'don't download apps') score once.
Explain the difference between free software and freeware. [3]
Model answer
Free software gives users the freedom to run, study, modify and redistribute the software, and the source code is made available — 'free' here means freedom, not necessarily zero cost. Freeware is software that is supplied at no cost (free as in price), but the source code is not shared, so users cannot legally study or modify it. The key difference is that free software grants those four freedoms (including access to the source code), whereas freeware only removes the price.
Why this scores
AO1/AO2 (3 marks): 1 for free software = freedoms + source available; 1 for freeware = no cost but closed source / cannot modify; 1 for a clear statement of the difference (freedom vs price).
A company is choosing software for its office. Compare open-source software and proprietary software, giving one advantage of each. [4]
Model answer
Open-source software has its source code publicly available, so anyone may study, modify and redistribute it; an advantage is that the company can adapt it to its own needs (and it is often free of cost). Proprietary software is owned by a company and supplied under a restrictive licence with the source code hidden, so it cannot be modified by the user; an advantage is that it usually comes with official technical support, regular updates and guaranteed reliability. Open-source therefore offers flexibility and low cost, while proprietary offers support and accountability.
Why this scores
AO1/AO2 (4 marks): 1 for describing open-source (source public / can modify-redistribute), 1 for an open-source advantage; 1 for describing proprietary (owned / closed source / licensed), 1 for a proprietary advantage. Advantages must match the correct type.
Explain what is meant by plagiarism and describe how it can be avoided. [5]
Model answer
Plagiarism is presenting someone else's work, words or ideas as your own without acknowledging the original source — it is a form of academic dishonesty. It can be avoided by citing and referencing every source used, giving the author, title and date/URL, and including a bibliography so credit is given to the original creator. Any wording taken directly from a source should be placed in quotation marks and attributed, while ideas borrowed from a source should be paraphrased in your own words but still referenced. Keeping careful notes of where each piece of information came from, and running the finished work through plagiarism-detection software, further reduce the risk of accidental plagiarism.
Why this scores
AO1/AO2 (5 marks): up to 2 for defining plagiarism (using others' work/ideas as your own, without crediting), and up to 3 for distinct avoidance methods (cite/reference + bibliography; quotation marks for direct copying; paraphrase yet still cite; use detection software). Rewording WITHOUT citing must not be credited.
Tom buys a copy of proprietary software and emails copies of it to ten of his friends so they do not have to pay. Discuss the ethical and legal issues raised by Tom's actions. [6]
Model answer
Tom's actions are an infringement of copyright: the software is protected work and the licence (EULA) he agreed to almost certainly permits installation on his own device(s) only, not redistribution, so copying and emailing it is illegal and could lead to legal action or fines. Ethically, it is a form of theft — the developers have invested time and money to create the software and rely on sales income, so giving away free copies denies them payment they are owed and is unfair to them. There is a wider impact too: widespread unauthorised copying (piracy) reduces developers' revenue, which can discourage future development, raise prices for honest customers and even reduce the funds available for security updates. Tom's friends are also at fault if they knowingly accept and use the illegal copies. A responsible alternative would be for the friends to buy their own licences, or to choose a legal free or open-source equivalent. Overall, Tom's behaviour breaches both copyright law and the ethical principle of respecting creators' rights.
Why this scores
AO2/AO3 'Discuss' (6 marks): credit a balanced range of developed points — legal (copyright/licence breach, possible penalties), ethical (unfair to developers, like theft), wider impact (piracy harms the industry / honest buyers), responsibility of the friends, and a sensible legal alternative. Marks for development and applying the issues to THIS scenario, not for listing.
Definitions to memorise and the exact keywords mark schemes credit for computer ethics answers — sharpened from recent examiner reports for the 2026 0478 sitting.
A legal right giving the creator of original work (including software) exclusive control over its reproduction, distribution and adaptation for a set period.
The contract a user agrees to when installing software, setting out what they can and can't do with it.
Software where users have the freedom to RUN, STUDY, MODIFY and REDISTRIBUTE it. 'Free' as in freedom — may or may not be free of cost.
Software available at no cost but where the source code is NOT shared and users may not modify it. Free as in PRICE, not freedom.
Software with a free trial period or limited free version; full functionality requires payment.
Software whose source code is publicly available — anyone may read, modify and redistribute it (subject to a licence).
Software owned by an individual or company; users typically license it under restrictive terms with no access to source code (e.g. Microsoft Office, Photoshop).
Laws and practices that govern how personal data must be collected, stored, used and shared (e.g. GDPR in Europe). Aims to protect privacy.
Discarded electronic equipment. Often contains toxic materials (lead, mercury, cadmium) and rare-earth metals worth recovering.
The traps other students keep falling into on computer ethics questions — taken from recent Cambridge IGCSE 0478 examiner reports and mark schemes — and how to avoid them.
0478 Examiner Reports 2022-2024
Why it happens
Both contain 'free'.
How to avoid it
FREE software = users have FOUR freedoms (run, study, modify, redistribute). FREEWARE = no cost only — source code stays closed. Different things.
Why it happens
Both are legal terms.
How to avoid it
Copyright = the underlying legal right (automatic). Licence = the permission the holder grants others to use the work (chosen — proprietary, GPL, MIT, Creative Commons, etc.).
Why it happens
Most open-source projects are free, in practice.
How to avoid it
Open-source = source code public + users can modify and redistribute. Doesn't mandate zero cost; some open-source projects sell support, hosting or commercial licences alongside the free open version.
Why it happens
Less marks-heavy than ethics/copyright.
How to avoid it
The 2026-2028 syllabus puts more weight on environmental impact (energy, e-waste, resource extraction). Examine it as a first-class ethics topic.
The things students keep getting wrong in this sub-topic, answered.